Identifying and Controlling Powdery Mildew on Trees

Powdery mildew is a common disease that appears as a white powdery substance on a tree  leaf surface. The powdery appearance comes from millions of tiny fungal spores, which are spread in air currents to cause new infections. Powdery mildew attacks all kinds of landscape plants, including trees. Fortunately, although the disease is disfiguring, it rarely kills a tree.   Almost any tree species can be affected by powdery mildew, but the most common are maple, basswood, dogwood, lilac, magnolia, crabapple, catalpa, and oaks.   Identification Powdery mildew disease  is caused by many different species of fungi, with Erysiphe cichoacearum reported to be the most common culprit.   According to the University of Minnesota:   Powdery mildew appears as superficial growth on plant surfaces and is seen as white to gray powdery spots, blotches or felt-like mats on leaves, stems, and buds.Infected plants may appear to be sprinkled with baby powder or covered in cobwebs.The disease is often most severe on young leaves, water sprouts, and green shoots.Once severely infected, leaves may turn yellow and fall prematurely during the growing season.In some plants, leaves turn purple to red around the infection.In late summer/early fall, tiny round orange to black balls form within white fungal mats.Most prevalent when outdoor conditions consist of cool temperatures with high humidity; however, it can be seen in warm, dry conditions as well.The disease is most severe on plants or plant parts in shaded areas with poor air movement (interior or lower branches). Biology of the Fungus Some powdery mildew fungi survive winter inside structures known as chasmothecium, which contain the spores. In spring, the chasmothecium rupture to release spores that are then spread by the wind. Other species of powdery mildew survive the winter as a dormant fungus in the infected buds or shoot tips. In spring, these spores start new infections on new plant growth. As the growing season progresses, news spores are produced and transferred to new plants on the wind.   Prevention Powdery mildew is rarely a tree killer,  but it can disfigure specimens in the landscape. It is a product of moist conditions and is usually seen in the wetter spring and fall seasons. In many  areas, powdery mildew is virtually unavoidable during the most humid parts of the period from spring through fall. Once dryer weather returns, the fungus usually retreats. It may not be necessary to treat the fungus at all, but certain measures may prevent it from becoming prevalent. This humidity-loving fungus can be controlled only if moisture can be controlled. Dont plant trees in heavily-shaded areas and provide plenty of space for air movement and growing room. Prune trees and shrubs to improve air movement between the branches. Additional methods for controlling powdery mildew: Choose disease-resistant varieties whenever possible. Mildew-resistant cultivars are available for many plants.Do not overcrowd plants. Adequate spacing improves air circulation and reduces powdery mildew infection.Prune the tree or shrub to increase light penetration and improve air circulation throughout the canopy. But avoid excessive pruning of infected plants—do your pruning during inactive periods.  Avoid fertilizing trees and shrubs when they are suffering from powdery mildew. Fertilizing stimulates new growth and may hasten the spread of the fungal infection.  Do not compost infected branches or leaves. The spores will remain in the compost and may infect other plants.   Controlling Powdery Mildew Commercial fungicides will kill powdery mildew, but many experts advise using these toxic chemicals only on specimen plants that are highly prized since the fungus rarely kills trees.   Chemical fungicide treatments that kill powdery mildew include : Thiophanate methylChlorothalonilSulfur (but not for sulfur-sensitive plants such as viburnum)Potassium bicarbonate Sulfer is perhaps the most common fungicide for powdery mildew. Spray wettable sulfur onto affected leaves at the recommended rate specified by the label. Sulfur may injure tender foliage, especially in hot weather, so be careful. Do not use sulfur on walnuts, as injury may occur. Where important plants have a history of powdery mildew infection, treat them preemptively, before the fungus appears.   A somewhat effective non-chemical treatment is to spray the plants with a mixture of household baking soda and water.

The Wife of Baths Reflexive Contradiction for Sexual...

The Wife of Baths Reflexive Contradiction for Sexual Equality in the Canterbury Tales The Wife of Bath has been described and depicted as an independent proto-feminist who long ago led the charge for sexual equality. Chaucers visionary protagonist was a refreshing and modern look at womens rights in the fifteenth century. She spends much of her prologue breaking down stereotypical barriers that have confined women of her time to passive and subservient roles in her society. As a result, her prologue, if standing alone, can be noted as one of the great calls for female independence in historical literature. But upon viewing her works as a whole, her section of the General Prologue, her prologue and her tale, it is well noted that†¦show more content†¦He then strikes back in a most unchivalrous and demeaning response. This knyght answerde, allas! and weylawey! / I woot right wel that swich was my biheste. / For goddes love, as chees a newe requeste! / Taak al my good, and lat my body go, (1064-7). To supposedly be living by a code of honor, the knights sharp words are an attempt to break out of his bond. I only emphasize them to express the sheer lack of respect and appreciativeness he has for his savior. After she humbly replies that all she wants is his love above all the wealth in the world, he starkly fires back in shock, My love . . . Nay my dampnacioun! (1073). He continues to spout off lines of rejection; digging himself into a deeper hole with the woman he has already sworn indirectly to marry. The story continues with a description of the sadness around the day of the marriage, all the while opposing the Wifes former views that a womens value lies less in her appearance and more in her performance in bed, that beauty is hardly an important factor in determining a womans value. Yet, the knight strongly rejects her merely on her lack of beauty. Whether the hag is simply desperate or confused is undetermined, but she gives in to the kni ghts lack of supposedly ingrained chivalry by letting him off with a light lecture on true nobility. Her quaint address is surmised by the simple statement, I shal fufille youre worldly

Emily Dickinson’s Poem Review Free Essays

I applaud Emily Dickinson’s choice of art over â€Å"real† life although I don’t think the two are mutually exclusive. While I cannot presume to know whether she had doubts about this herself or whether she had other problems that prevented her from living â€Å"real† life, I can clearly see that her life inside her mind was very rich. By choosing art, Emily Dickinson has left us with a wealth of succinct poems with very important themes. We will write a custom essay sample on Emily Dickinson’s Poem Review or any similar topic only for you Order Now Particularly stunning is â€Å"Much Madness is Divinest Sense. † In that poem, she perfectly recaps the idea of majority rule. If one agrees with the majority, one is sane. If not, one is dangerous and wrong. This is such a short and simple poem that covers so many times in our lives and current events. There are so many examples of the majority doing the wrong thing, like slavery. Another important theme is contained in â€Å"If You Were Coming in the Fall. † This poem discusses the difficulty or utter torture of waiting for some uncertain future. One can wait much more easily if there is some kind of certainty or date at the end. â€Å"But now, all ignorant of the length Of time’s uncertain wing, It goads me, like the goblin bee, That will not state its sting. â€Å" (Dickinson) The longer one waits, the more painful it becomes. It stings as Dickinson says. However, Dickinson says that waiting without that certainty is nothing but torture. This theme is universal. And yet, another important theme is contained in â€Å"Hope is the Thing with Feathers. † Dickinson gives herself and everyone else the claim that hope is always present in life. Hope is always with us; it â€Å"perches† in our souls. It never asks anything of the reader just remains in our hearts to keep us warm. â€Å"Yet, never, in extremity, It asked a crumb of me† (Dickinson). Again this is a very profound lesson contained in a brief poem. Who knows what the effect would have been if Dickinson had chosen to have a husband and family or an active social life? The point is that the choice was hers, and she made it. Personally, I relish her choice as I think she gives us so many words to live by. For those who don’t like poetry all that much, she is simple and straightforward and yet, very profound. How to cite Emily Dickinson’s Poem Review, Papers

Working Ethically, safely and professionally free essay sample

‘Ethics’ is defined as: ‘moral principles that govern a person’s behavior or the conducting of an activity’; they tend to be values imposed by one’s self or by a group on its members. ‘Morals’ is defined as: ‘standards of behavior; principles of right and wrong’; they tend to be imposed by society. ‘Principle’ is defined as: A rule or belief governing ones personal behavior ‘Values’ is defined as: principles or standards of behavior; one’s judgement of what is important in life: High standard of morals will set standards of behavior for an individual and help them distinguish between right and wrong. Their values will help them determine what is important in life. And help in moral dilemmas where it’s a case of choosing between right and right as opposed to choosing between right and wrong. Ethics are formulated out of a combination of morals and values and help a person to set certain boundaries for themselves or in the case of a profession; for its members. Having a sound combination of morals, values and ethics enables one to develop sound principles. It can therefore be said that if you have good principles, then you are likely to conduct yourself in an ethically sound manner. Far from being cut-and-dried however, there are very blurred thin grey lines of boundaries between these and more often than not, upbringing, social backgrounds and religious beliefs can play an extensive role in a person’s morals, values and principles which in turn affect their ethics. For example, I was brought up in a christian home and in a culture where extramarital sexual relations are wrong and frowned upon. Because of this background, culture and belief I strongly believed that I had to remain I virgin till my wedding day. My principles, values and morals , moulded by my upbringing informed what was ethically right for me. I have several good friends who are living with their partners and have children but have no intention of getting married because for them there is nothing wrong with it. Its so crucial therefore as counsellors to maintain at the forefront of our minds that each client is different, thinks differently and believes differently to us and thereby give them an unconditional positive regard. Unit 1. 1 Apply understanding of an ethical framework to counselling practice sessions. Professionals can have a huge impact on their clients and their actions can affect the lives of the people they deal directly with and that of their families. It is imperative therefore that they exercise the highest level of safe and ethical practice to minimize harm to the client. In a professional setting one will encounter various people of varied cultural backgrounds with varied needs. This makes it extremely important therefore that the professional has very high ethical standards to ensure that the profession is upheld and that the client does not suffer any exploitation but receives a good standard of care. It is required of the professional to understand that morals values principles and ethics are not separate entities. They must be considered with a holistic approach realizing that a persons background will inform their morals and values and in turn their ethics and principles. What may be perfectly acceptable to one may be taboo to the other simply because of the conditions of worth placed on them by their society and upbringing. In counseling the ethical framework is intended to guide and inform practice. Its is necessary to safeguard the profession as well as the client. It is necessary in order to uphold high standards of professionalism and practice. Without these guidelines the profession could end up in disrepute . There would be no trust and respect or regard for counsellors. In a counselling practice I applied this by explaining to my client that I was a trainee working under BACP guidelines. I explained what BACP stood for and how I am bound by its guidelines . I went on further to explain patient centered counselling and what that would mean for my client. I also let them know that confidentiality was part of the ethical framework and that they could expect complete confidence. I further explained the conditions under which this confidence may and will be breached. Unit 1. 2 Explain the importance of working within limits of proficiency It behooves the professional to give careful consideration to their own limitations when dealing with complex issues that may arise in order that the client at all times receives a good quality of care. This is an important aspect of the ethical framework known as working within the limits of our proficiency. In any given counseling session the counsellor has no idea what will be brought by the client. It may happen that the counsellor finds themselves having to deal with an issue which is beyond their scope or ability. In such an instance the counsellor needs to be open and upfront with the client and arrange a referral if agreed to by the client. Having said that, the client may have formed such a bond with the counsellor that they do not want to see anyone else. This means that the counsellor will have to explain to their client the need for them to do some research on the topic and take the case unidentifiably to supervision for advice. It is dangerous to attempt to handle a case above the limits of ones limit of ability. Not only may the client be able to see through the incongruence and be disappointed and mistrusting ,but the counsellor may end up causing more harm than good because they are attempting to deal with a situation they are ill informed on and unprepared for. In their professional capacity, a counsellor is in a position of authority and therefore ethically bound to give their client the best quality of care. This may sometimes mean referral to someone more qualified to handle the situation. Unit 2. 2 establish and sustain the boundaries of the counsellor role in counselling practice sessions. Another aspect of the ethical framework is professional boundaries. Boundaries are key to any healthy relationship. In the same way boundaries are key to a healthy counselling relationship. They are needed in several aspects of the relationship including time, physical, confidentiality to name a few. Without these boundaries the relationship will develop but may go in the wrong direction. There will be hurts and disappointments resulting. Wherever boundaries are put in place, one knows exactly how to behave and what to expect from the relationship as well as what is expected of them. In this way either party knows where they stand and there are few surprises and disappointments . For example if Im counselling a client and decline to put in place any time boundaries in place, I know how long the session is going to last, but my client has no idea. They may end up being disappointed that it ended too soon or surprised its going on so long. With the boundaries in place they know exactly what to expect. In one of my practice sessions I had put in all the time boundaries, but at the end still got a door- knob comment from my client. It was extremely tempting to pick up from there and continue the session but I had to be firm and let him know that we will discuss that at our next session. In a real life situation, I may have other clients waiting or other appointments booked in and to carry on with this client would be to communicate that the time boundaries are flexible or of no relevance. This may lead to serious misunderstanding further down the line. Another scenario is where no professional boundaries are put in place. The counsellor and client relationship is a professional one. The counsellor is in a position of authority. It is not a friendship, it is not a romantic relationship, it is a professional one. With the counsellor helping the client through some very difficult times and sharing in things the client may have never shared with anyone else before,it is extremely easy for a physical attraction to develop as the counselling relationship develops. Session after session the feelings will grow. The professional boundaries of conduct must be put in place early in the relationship to avoid this. Should this develop the counsellor is likely to be penalized for it as it is an abuse of their position of authority. I once had to put firm physical boundaries in place in my friendship with a gentleman in church. He was married with four children and wanted to take me and my children on days out without his family or my husband. I felt extremely uncomfortable about this arrangement and declined the offer. He then began to send very innocent looking text messages , but what concerned me was that he didnt want me to mention the texts to anyone. I decided then that despite all his protests otherwise that his intentions were not so pure. I threatened to forward all future texts to his wife , who also happened to be a friend. I did not receive any further messages from him. This is the kind of situation that one might find themselves in in a counselling relationship. Seemingly innocent to begin with but as a professional I would need to judge the situation from an objective standpoint and be sure that I have in place the right boundaries to protect my client, myself, my career,and the reputation of the profession as a whole. Boundaries regarding Confidentiality must be maintained to prevent trusts being broken and to safeguard against disrepute. A client normally enters into the counselling setting feeling vulnerable, burdened and in need of help. It takes a lot of trust on their part to open up to a stranger. This trust must never be broken. The client must be briefed on the circumstances under which this confidence may be breached. This is when there is a risk of a terrorist act or when there is an indication of harm to self or harm to others. Under no other circumstances must the confidence be broken without the clients prior knowledge and consent. Even when taking an issue into supervision it needs to be done unidentifiably. In conclusion , a counsellor is a professional in a position to help others through difficult times. One can only fully achieve this by working within the boundaries of the ethical framework . Working as such results in a safe practice.

Applying Social Concepts and Theories

Euthanasia Essays (1867 words) - Euthanasia, Medical Ethics

Euthanasia Essays (1867 words) - Euthanasia, Medical Ethics Euthanasia Euthanasia in the United States Every year two million people die in North America. Chronic illness, such as cancer or heart disease, accounts for two of every three deaths. It is estimated that approximately seventy percent of these people die after a decision is made to forgo life-sustaining treatment (Choice in Dying). In America and all around the world, the ongoing debate is whether patients should have the opportunity to implement this critical alternative of euthanasia. Although controversial, it is imperative that United States citizens are not denied this right to a humane death. Groups in opposition to euthanasia say that patients who yearn to make this decision are neither in a healthy psychological state of mind nor have the God-willing right to do so. These groups feel if euthanasia were to become a publicly accepted option to the terminally ill that physicians, family, and even patients may abuse it. They also strongly support modern end-of-life treatment, known as pall iative care, as a more logical and moral option. Perhaps the strongest belief that euthanasia is wrong comes from those who follow the words of the Bible and believe that every aspect of life belongs to God. The Old Testament records an incident involving King Saul of Israel, who became seriously wounded on the battlefield. Fearing the advancing enemy, Saul took his own sword and tried to fall against it. He cried to a soldier, Come and put me out of my misery for I am in terrible pain but life lingers on. The soldier acted in accordance with the wishes of the king and killed him. The soldier then brought some of Sauls armor to David and said, I killed him, for I knew he couldnt live. David ordered the soldier put to death (Eareckson, 111). Those who believe in the Bible clearly see here that, whether a monarch or a common person, mercy killing is perceived as iniquitous in the Lords eyes. To see a more recent example of the Catholic Churchs disagreement of euthanasia we only have t o look back a few years. In 1994, for instance, the Dutch television station IKONs filming of the death of a man with Lou Gehrigs disease in a documentary, Death on Request, brought a denunciation from the Vatican (Branegan, 30). Equally important to those supporting the anti-euthanasia cause is the thought of any physician, family member or patient who would abuse this right if given the chance. Naturally, much trust is bestowed in these key players of our lives if anything were to happen to us. The question in this sense is how do we know that they will make decisions in the best interest of the patient if they are unable to speak for themselves? Would the financial and emotional burden on the family of a terminally ill patient cause them to make an irrational decision to directly affect the life of the patient? If the emotional stress doesnt get to some people, the financial burden may definitely hit some families hard these days with the high costs of modern medical treatment. A nd who couldnt use thousands of dollars in life insurance? The temptation is definitely there. A harsh example of this can be seen in the experience of a fifty-year-old woman with cancer of the bones, liver, lungs, and breast. Her doctor was a Polish-born oncologist, Dr. Ben Zylicz. Dr. Zylicz explained to the woman that he could lessen her pain with drugs, and offered her a hospital room. Aware of Hollands policy allowing doctors to end the lives of the terminally ill by such means, the woman stated, I am Catholic. My religious beliefs would never allow me to accept euthanasia. Zylicz assured the woman that he would take care of her, and she agreed to take the room. After twenty-four hours of morphine treatment she was able to see her family (Eads, 93). Later, a nurse called Zylicz at home with some distressing news. After Zylicz had left the hospital, another doctor entered the patients hospital room and asked her husband and sister to leave. He then ordered an increase in her mor phine dosage, but refused to confirm the order in writing. Within minutes the woman was dead.

Assignment as informatition Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Assignment as informatition - Research Paper Example These snow vehicles were further expanded to 12 seated capacity for ambulance and other transportation services in 1940 under the name L’Auto-Niege Bombardier Limitee. In 1949, Canadian government’s policy to remove snow from roads presented and major setback to the company but Bombardier responded by searching new markets and inventing a truck with interchangeable wheels and skis. In 1966, company went public to seek larger expansion and growth (Bombardier Inc. 25). Bombardier Recreational Products launched Sea-Doo watercraft which considerably increased its share in recreational market. Bombardier rebanded ATV as Can-Am, an all-terrain vehicle and started production of a three wheel open roadster vehicle under brand name Spyder before this division was sold out to Bombardier family in 2003 (Delmont 9). In 1974, Bombardier Transport won a mass transit contract to manufacture more than 400 cars for subway system in Montreal. Following this, in 1984 company had breakthro ugh success in contracting New York City Transit Authority for more than 800 subway rail transit cars. Bombardier planned to went global through acquisition of BN Constructions Ferroviaires et Metalliques S.A. Belgium in 1986, ANF Industrie France in 1989, Constructura Nacional de Carros de Ferrocarril Mexico in 1992, Waggonfabrik Talbot GmbH & Co.

Saudi Airline and the Privatisation Dissertation

Saudi Airline and the Privatisation - Dissertation Example However, in essence, it refers to the shift of partial or full responsibility for a function performed by the public sector or government to the private sector. The most common usage of the term takes place when a public sector entity is divested, either through sale or a long term lease, to a private entity (Veljanovski & Bentley, 2008, p. 42). However, technically, the granting of a long term franchise or concession to the private sector investors, where they would build, manage and operate a major project also falls under the umbrella of privatisation. Furthermore, in a third type of privatisation, a government entity retains control of the strategic direction of the public service but allows a private entity to deliver a public service. This form of privatisation is commonly known as outsourcing or contracting (Bortolotti, et al., 2004, pp. 330). Reasons for Privatisation As argued by Megginson & Netter (2001) that the government usually justifies privatisation with three reasons . First, privatisation generates revenue which could be used to reduce the fiscal deficits and pay off debts. Throughout the history, in times of dire need, huge debts and fiscal deficits, policymakers have resorted to privatisation of the SOEs s that they reduce fiscal deficits and pay off the public debt (Bos, 2011, p. 41). Consider the ongoing example of the European Sovereign Debt Crisis, where countries such as Spain, Greece, Portugal, Cyprus, Iceland and others are facing a difficult time in meeting their debt obligation. Many of the European countries have sold off several public entities to generate much needed revenue. In fact, many countries that have acquired bailouts from International Monetary Fund (IMF) and European Central Bank (ECB) have had to sign agreements promising the privatisation of several underperforming public sector institutions. Therefore, in these countries, privatisation is an attempt at bailing out the government and the SOEs. Second, policymakers mig ht also undertake privatisation to reverse the effects of â€Å"crowding out† within markets and encourage the private enterprises to take the lead. As apparent from the theory of crowding out, when governments, while following an expansionary fiscal policy, increase the size of the public sector, it drives out the private sector from the market (Cashore, 2002, p. 505). More importantly, in several cases, even a moderate increase in public sector might drive out several private entities. Therefore, when public sector entities leave the competitive arena, with their monopoly, concessions, subsidies, unlimited funds and several other advantages, it encourages the private sector to enter the market (Vickers & Yarrow, 1988, p. 52). When the government no longer is there to distort the market, the market forces ensure effective and efficient resource allocation, which not only generates employment

Positivism as an Epistemological System Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Positivism as an Epistemological System - Essay Example Thus, there can be no room for any mystical abstractions in explaining phenomena. In the second wave of positivist thought, a second form of positivism, i.e. logical positivism took place, and â€Å"took advantage of the further progress made in the hard sciences to insist on purging all metaphysics from the scientific method† (Jordan, 2004, p.28). â€Å"Logical positivist views about science and knowledge were based on a general theory of language. †¦This theory of language featured two main ideas, the analytic-synthetic distinction and the verifiability theory of meaning† (Godfrey-Smith, 2003, p.25). I will discuss these ideas in detail in the next section. The third wave of positivism is generally attributed to a group called the Vienna Circle. â€Å"The Vienna Circle was established by Moritz Schlick and Otto Neurath. †¦But from the early days through the end, a central intellectual figure here was Rudolf Carnap† (Godfrey-Smith, 2003, p.22). In this stage, positivism was carried in its logical form. However, some positivists prefer to regard this latter period as logical or scientific empiricism (Greetham, 2006, p.121), to distinguish it from the previous logical positivist movement. In this essay, I shall use the term logical positivism to refer to the whole of 20th century positivism, to distinguish it from Comte’s 19th century positivism. Positivism as Epistemology From a general perspective, positivism is considered to be an epistemological system through its advocacy of attaining empirical knowledge through sense perception, and its adherence to the scientific method i.e. induction. However when logical positivism stepped into the picture, it was made clear that â€Å"logical positivism had other roots... The first part of the paper consists of an historical analysis of 19th century positivism, logical positivism, up until the period of the Vienna Circle. The second part covers the epistemological implications of positivism. Here,the main tenets of logical positivism and its adherence to epistemology are discussed. A main figure that it will be discussed here is Karl Popper. Finally, this paper is concluded by discussing the fall of positivism. The paper stresses that progress and development in knowledge is an endless endeavor. Since the birth of positivism up until its downfall, positivism nevertheless shaped the manner by which we do science. The authod talks that one is the breakdown of the view of language that formed the basis of many logical positivist and logical empiricist ideas. Another is pressure from holistic arguments. A third is the frustrating history of attempts to develop an inductive logic. A fourth is the development of a new role for fields like history and psychology in the philosophy of science. The report makes a conclusion that positivism succeeded in developing a systematic method of approaching reality. And scientific knowledge was the very basis for reconstructing reality, with scientific laws as central in research. If epistemology is the study of knowledge, then positivism is a valid epistemological system. For if there is one thing that positivism established, it is no other than a coherent reconstruction of human knowledge based on the methods and principles of science itself. It is in this regard that positivism, despite its fall, proved to be influential throughout history.

Leadership at Nestle

Leadership at Nestle Leadership: â€Å"Leadership is the art of getting someone else to do something you want done because he wants to do it.† (Dwight D. Eisenhower).One more definition of leadership is getting things done by others. Leadership is an important phenomenon in the dimension of managing people because leadership is directly concerned with the styles, tools and techniques for getting things done through the other people. (Bass, 1991) Leadership can be meant different for different people in different environments and perspectives. Leadership may be political, religious, community or organizational, (DePree, 1990) the common thing among all of them is that leaders are responsible to provide guideline to whom they are charged with the responsibility to lead. The concept of leadership is emerged from the organized efforts and mostly related to the presence of organized and disciplined action (Kellerman, 2004). So the leadership is all about the presence of some organization. Without an organization t here is no concept of leadership. One thing Organization is basically collection of individuals who are working together to achieve some common purpose or purposes. Interaction and socially construction is the base of today’s leadership. Leadership in organizations and appropriate leadership style for different types of organizations is a hot topic of discussion among researchers for a long time. As leader is responsible to use his management skills in a way that his followers achieve their destinations in an easy and smooth manner so the way a leader adopt for leading has really a great importance. (Bolden, 2005) Today almost everyone knows about nestle and uses the products made by nestle in daily life. Nestle is a Swiss based company, having the edge of being a multinational it’s the world’s largest and ranked as no. 1 food company of world with more than 447 factories located in 194 countries of world and having more than 333,000 employees around the globe (nestleusa, 2015). Having such a huge work force demands from the company that it should have some appropriate leadership values and structures to guide its managers in decision making and to deal with the problems related to diverse culture and increased diversity within organization. Rather than maintaining the formal authorities given by organization, it’s the responsibility of managers at Nestle to inspire the people and add value for company and add value for society at large. Such a motivation and commitment results in increasing the value for organization. Due to rapid change in external environment and severe competition which was unpredictable in past and requires the managers to develop some enhanced capabilities which can be described in following principles formulated by Nestle. Principles of Leadership at Nestle: Lead for winning: Credibility development through proper leadership style, achievement and coherent action. Based on the nature of situation and culture of a particular environment proper leadership styles are applied by managers in their different work units. Managers at Nestle think about a phenomena from different perspectives in a way which leads toward innovation. Employees are provided with the opportunity of taking risk and openness to new experiences which many times leads to the mistakes but they are tolerate able if the mistakes are becoming the source of learning and employees are commited to learn from them. Innovation needs experiments and not every experiment brings favourable results, but some can entirely change the way the work was done and managed. So all these experiments are possible when the management is ready to tolerate the results of failures, which is the case of Nestle (Nestle-family, 2015). Management of expectations and alignment of every action with the overall or corporate strategy of company is the key factor of success for company and the importance of both of them is recognized on every level by Nestle. Balanced lifestyle, good level of general and professional education, responsible behaviour are the key characteristics of managers at Nestle which when they lead by example shifts toward the employees on every level. All of such actions and demonstrations make it possible to lead for winning. Management for results: Maintaining exposure in the situations of intense pressure while in the same time maintaining the temperament and capacity of taking initiatives and risks is most of the times very difficult for managers. Effectively and efficiently managing between these both extremes is the difference between being just a manager and being a leader. Managers at Nestle are trained for managing them. Business units at local level, regional level, corporate and global level requires synergy. Which is the result of deep level of proactive cooperation among all of them. Leaders at Nestle are trained for creating synergy on all levels. Change is inevitable and but managing the consequences of change is the responsibility of a leader and the effective management results in managing the change in a way that produces favourable results for organization like Nestle. All the above leadership practices results in achieving business objectives in a way that the compliance is maintained with sustainable practices. Grow teams and Talent: Nestle ensures personal commitment of its employees toward their work and achieving their individual goals so that the overall goals of organization become able to meet which results in promoting the organizational success. Company develop the leaders of tomorrow by addressing them and allowing them to progress in the area which provides them the opportunity to expand their capabilities on individual and group levels. For developing the leaders of tomorrow company understands the extent to which the continuous learning and sharing of ideas in a free manner is important. Employees can never know about their exact performance and until they are provided with the honest and fair feedback from their managers which includes performance appraisal in a way that respect of employee will never be shaken on any step. Doing all these leadership practices, management at Nestle is always conscious abut maintain the exact balance of diversity and gender prevails in the organization. Competing and connecting externally: Continuously looking toward the ways to satisfy the consumers in most innovative way and attracting the new customers in a compelling way is also the part of leadership practices at Nestle. Nestle believes in an outside in perspective for customers and inside in for the employees of organization and seeks good business relations with all the stakeholders. Diversity: Diversity is an important debate in organizational circles for a long period of time. Some organizations try their best to increase diversity in their work settings while others pose their every action against it. So think that the diversity can enhance the productivity because of many different ideas from different thinking while other claim that due to diversity there are conflicts among employees which results in low productivity and wastage of time. Through empirical analysis Researchers declared that the diversity is beneficial for an organization if the differences among the employee are managed properly (Williams, 1998). Approaches for managing differences: There are two common approaches for managing differences in the work place. 1. Avoidance 2. Repression. Avoidance is the strategy mostly used by risk adverse management and Repression approach is used when management wants to discourage the disagreement. The factors which must be uppermost in selecting most appropriate approach for managing differences are avoidance or avoiding the difference, conflict, tolerance and appreciation. (Carole G. Parker, 2009) Conflict is the top level of the differences, it is sometimes also names as war. On the initial level the individuals become aware of the differences among them, such differences afterwards results in discomfort which afterwards results in annoyance, then irritation, then tension, then frustration, disagreement, anger, hostility step by step and finally results in conflict or war (Guillaume, 2014). Through the use of emotional intelligence one can select the most appropriate way or action to manage conflict. In case of avoidance there is an opportunity to learn more about the difference before taking an action. In tolerance the participants actively engaged in the situation of difference rather than remaining silent and just observing the phenomenon. In conflict there is direct judgement of others action and declaring them good or bad. Appreciation of differences results in a good level of personal development of individual and growth. (Triana, 2014) The individuals tend to speak with freedom and without any kind of fear. In selecting the most appropriate approach for managing differences the manager should consider the appropriate action or combination of factors among avoidance, conflict, appreciation and tolerance according to the nature of situation. Why is it necessary to maintain a well-balanced work environment? It is necessary to maintain a well-balanced work environment in the term of diversity because diversity offers the organizations to face its difficulties through new and innovative ways. There are lot of opportunities for organizations to avail from the differences among the employees. When two or more varied thinkers think on a phenomenon, they can consider it in a more creative way than they can think individually. So a well-balanced work environment results in creativity. (Choi, 2014) Innovation is a result of thinking in new ways. When many of the diverse employees work together to achieve some common objective. For everyone the phenomenon appears in a different angle and different perspectives and at last everyone proposes his own solution to the problem which results in innovation. When different employees work in a different style in the work environment their diverse experience results in learning for the other employees which are working in traditional manners. Beside the advantages of diversity many disadvantages are also associated with diversity such as communication barriers, thinking style differences, which many times results in non-productive conflict in organization (Australian Govt, 2014). It is necessary therefore that the work environment should be well balanced in term of diversity to get the advantages of it and for avoiding its disadvantages. Diversity at Nestle: Nestle is always an equal opportunity employer and always appreciates diversity in organization. The management is of the opinion that diverse employees are the reason behind such a tremendous success of organization. Nestle has the slogan that â€Å"Our differences make us stronger†. Company is of the opinion that the unique people with unique backgrounds bring their unique perspectives and experiences with them. In Nestle the voice of every individual from every background is not only heard but also appreciated. The goal of company is to attract the best workforce from diverse backgrounds and retain them. The company believes that these employees can create such products which are liked by the customers all over the world. Having the diverse workforce like Nestle has not only benefits the company but also the employees and the societies from which they belong to. Nestle has its own recruiting system which is called as â€Å"Symposium for Diverse Leaders of Tomorrow† through which the recruitment and selection of employees from different background is done. Furthermore Nestle also actively participates in different MBA recruiting programs including Consortium for Graduate Study in Management Orientation Program (CGSM OP). Through these selection programs the fresh graduates of universities are selected on merit basis without considering the backgrounds, races from whom they belong to. For encouraging the diversity in organization and let the employees share their knowledge experiences and best practices Nestle has promoted many ethnic groups such as â€Å"Nestlà © Black Employees Association (NBEA)†, Nestlà © Women’s Network (NWN) for promoting the exact gender balance in the organization. Further Nestlà © Hispanic Employees Association (NHEA) is also working for the promotion of interests of Hispanic employees in organization. The purpose of making all these associations and organizations is to gather the employees from diverse backgrounds on a platform where they can share their experiences about how to make the company a better place to work (NestleUSA, 2015). The company is of the opinion that the employees from diverse backgrounds are asset for the organization and these employees are in fact the source of competitive advantage for the company. References: Australian Govt. (2014). The benefits of workforce diversity. Retrieved 4 26, 2015, from http://www.apsc.gov.au/apsinduction/module-6/benefits Bass, B. M. (1991). From transactional to transformational leadership: Learning to share the vision. Organizational dynamics,, 18(3), 19-31. Bolden, R. (2005). What is leadership development: purpose and practice?. . University of Exeter, Centre for Leadership Studies. Carole G. Parker. (2009). THE EMOTIONAL CONNECTION OF DISTINGUISHING DIFFERENCES AND CONFLICT. In Understanding and Managing Diversity (5th ed., pp. 41-45). Pearson. Choi, S. . (2014). Organizational Fairness and Diversity Management in Public Organizations Does Fairness Matter in Managing Diversity?. . Review of Public Personnel Administration,, 307-331. DePree, M. (1990). What is leadership? Planning Review,, 18(4), 14-41. Guillaume, Y. R. (2014). Managing diversity in organizations: An integrative model and agenda for future research. European journal of work and organizational psychology,, 23(5), 783-802. Kellerman, B. (2004). Thinking about leadership. Warts and all. Harvard Business Review,, 82(1), 40-45. Nestle-family. (2015, 6 22). Nestle-family. Retrieved from Nestle family.com: http://www.nestle-family.com/assets/downloads/The-Nestle-Management-and-Leadership-Principles.pdf nestleusa. (2015, 6 20). Retrieved from nestleusa.com: http://www.nestleusa.com/about-us NestleUSA. (2015, 4 20). Diversity. Retrieved from .nestleusa.com: http://careers.nestleusa.com/diversity Triana, M. C. (2014, January 5). Organizational Diversity Efforts and Employee Discrimination Claims: Organizational Motives Matter. Academy of Management Proceedings, p. 10784. Williams, K. Y. (1998). Demography and diversity in organizations: A review of 40 years of research. Research in organizational behavior, , 77-140.

Constructivism: A Matter of Interpretation Essay -- Philosophy Learnin

Constructivism: A Matter of Interpretation The theory of constructivism rests on the notion that there is an innate human drive to make sense of the world. Instead of absorbing or passively receiving objective knowledge that is "out there," learners actively construct knowledge by integrating new information and experiences into what they have previously come to understand, revising and reinterpreting old knowledge in order to reconcile it with the new (Billett 1996). The cognitive structures that learners build include procedural knowledge (how--techniques, skills, and abilities) and propositional knowledge (that--facts, concepts, propositions). Often neglected are dispositions--attitudes, values, and interests that help learners decide: Is it worth doing? Knowing how and that is not sufficient without the disposition to do. Other key features of knowledge construction are functional context, social context, and usefulness. The process works most effectively when it is embedded in a context in which new knowledge and skills will be used. Research on thinking and learning reinforces the idea that people learn through interaction with others (Johnson and Thomas 1994). Although learning is a matter of personal and unique interpretation, it takes place within the social context. In addition, learning must be useful to the learner; intrinsic motivation emerges from the desire to understand, to construct meaning (Billett 1996). Using a constructivist approach, teachers facilitate learning by encouraging active inquiry, guiding learners to question their tacit assumptions, and coaching them in the construction process. This contrasts with the behavioralist approach that has dominated education, in which the teacher dissemina... ...." Journal of Technology Studies 20, no. 1 (Winter-Spring 1994): 33-45. (EJ 494 218) Lynch, R. L. Designing Vocational and Technical Teacher Education for the 21st Century. Columbus: ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult, Career, and Vocational Education, 1997. Parnell, D. "Cerebral Context." Vocational Education Journal 71, no. 3 (March 1996): 19-21, 50. (EJ 519 286) Rahn, M. "Lively Connections." Vocational Education Journal 71, no. 5 (May 1996): 33-35, 60. (EJ 522 561) Schell, J. W., and Babich, A. M. "Tech-Prep and the Development of Higher-Order Thinking Skills among Learners with Special Needs." Journal for Vocational Special Needs Education 16, no. 2 (Fall 1993): 6-13. (EJ 472 196) Stevenson, J., ed. Cognition at Work: The Development of Vocational Expertise. Leabrook, Australia: National Centre for Vocational Education Research, 1994. (ED 380 542) Constructivism: A Matter of Interpretation Essay -- Philosophy Learnin Constructivism: A Matter of Interpretation The theory of constructivism rests on the notion that there is an innate human drive to make sense of the world. Instead of absorbing or passively receiving objective knowledge that is "out there," learners actively construct knowledge by integrating new information and experiences into what they have previously come to understand, revising and reinterpreting old knowledge in order to reconcile it with the new (Billett 1996). The cognitive structures that learners build include procedural knowledge (how--techniques, skills, and abilities) and propositional knowledge (that--facts, concepts, propositions). Often neglected are dispositions--attitudes, values, and interests that help learners decide: Is it worth doing? Knowing how and that is not sufficient without the disposition to do. Other key features of knowledge construction are functional context, social context, and usefulness. The process works most effectively when it is embedded in a context in which new knowledge and skills will be used. Research on thinking and learning reinforces the idea that people learn through interaction with others (Johnson and Thomas 1994). Although learning is a matter of personal and unique interpretation, it takes place within the social context. In addition, learning must be useful to the learner; intrinsic motivation emerges from the desire to understand, to construct meaning (Billett 1996). Using a constructivist approach, teachers facilitate learning by encouraging active inquiry, guiding learners to question their tacit assumptions, and coaching them in the construction process. This contrasts with the behavioralist approach that has dominated education, in which the teacher dissemina... ...." Journal of Technology Studies 20, no. 1 (Winter-Spring 1994): 33-45. (EJ 494 218) Lynch, R. L. Designing Vocational and Technical Teacher Education for the 21st Century. Columbus: ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult, Career, and Vocational Education, 1997. Parnell, D. "Cerebral Context." Vocational Education Journal 71, no. 3 (March 1996): 19-21, 50. (EJ 519 286) Rahn, M. "Lively Connections." Vocational Education Journal 71, no. 5 (May 1996): 33-35, 60. (EJ 522 561) Schell, J. W., and Babich, A. M. "Tech-Prep and the Development of Higher-Order Thinking Skills among Learners with Special Needs." Journal for Vocational Special Needs Education 16, no. 2 (Fall 1993): 6-13. (EJ 472 196) Stevenson, J., ed. Cognition at Work: The Development of Vocational Expertise. Leabrook, Australia: National Centre for Vocational Education Research, 1994. (ED 380 542)

Creative Product Promotion Describe the Promotional Mix

(a) Describe the promotional mix used by two selected organisations for a selected product/service. Coca-Cola Founded in 1886 by pharmacist Dr John S Pemberton in Atlanta, Georgia, The CocaCola Company is the world's leading manufacturer, marketer and distributor of non-alcoholic beverage concentrates and syrups, and produces nearly 400 brands. www. coca-cola. co. uk/about-us/introducing-our-business. html Coca-Cola was invented by Dr John Stith Pemberton and first went on sale at Jacob’s Pharmacy in Atlanta, Georgia and these days Coca-Cola is the world’s most favourite and most profitable drink from 1886.PROMOTIONAL MIX Advertising – Coca-Cola uses one of the most modern and popular advertising. Christmas advertisment most popular and Coca-Cola uses Santa Clause because he is with red suit and a white beard and he did not always look that way as Coca-Cola advertising shaped him like that. They use different types of advertising such as: * Print ads * Radio * Te levision * Billboards * Banners * Brochures * Signs * In-store displays * Posters * Web Pages * Motion Pictures Personal selling – Coca-Cola Corporation avoids personal selling but in case of large store and hotels etc. t does use personal selling. The sale officers contact the owners and sell their products directly to owners. Sales promotion – Sale promotion is very important because it can help to increase sales in a competitive market and thus, increase profits also it will help to sell all the existing stocks and there are many more advantages but not only for the company because consumers gets the product at a cheaper rate. The different types of sale promotions that Coca-Cola uses: Associated essay: Corporate Product Or Service CommunicationsBuy one get one free – long time ago Coca-Cola used buy 2L get 1L free and they found that this is not as effective as â€Å"buy one get one free† therefore from now on they are using this technique. Media – Coca-Cola always used this technique as it was most popular and profitable at the same time. To explain what is media it is a special code or message that can be found on the back of the cap and they used two different methods for that. First was more profitable way which was putting there codes and you had to send message or call a number shown to enter a lucky draw with various prizes.Second was putting messages on back of the cap where you could win another bottle of Coke instantly. Last but not least they used Joint Promotion – this is getting more and more popular. Coke is having a promotion from McDonalds, Dominos, KFC, Burger King and many other places, because for example Dominos migh t have a special offer when you buy a pizza you get a bottle of coke free. Public relations – The Coca-Cola has come up with a great public relations plan to use social media like Twitter and Facebook to convey their views on the environment and the actions they are taking.With campaigns like the Polar Bear campaign they started to integrate social media into their public relations. Also Coca-Cola reduced the percent of plastic in product bottling and made bottles recyclable. Direct Marketing is a channel-agnostic form of advertising that allows businesses and nonprofits to communicate straight to the customer, with advertising techniques such as mobile messaging, email, interactive consumer websites, online display ads, fliers, catalog distribution, promotional letters, and outdoor advertising.Corporate image Coca-Cola has a good corporate image although they had problems with the content of the coca-cola as it was containing a lot of sugar, caramel color, caffeine and it ma de it very addictive therefore Coca-cola had to reduce amounts of bad ingredients. As you can see from this chart it shows nutrition information and GDA of 500ml of Coca-Cola it clearly shows that 1L of Coca-cola would exceed GDA of sugar if consumed in one day. Corporate image may also be considered as the sixth aspect of promotion mix.The Image of an organization is a crucial point in marketing. If the reputation of a company is bad, consumers are less willing to buy a product from this company as they would have been, if the company had a good image. Sponsorship is sometimes added as an seventh aspect. Direct Marketing Coca-Cola does not use direct marketing techniques although they could consider using direct marketing techniques such as mobile messaging, email, interactive consumer websites, fliers and outdoor advertisingSponsorship – Coca-Cola is proud to have a long history of sponsoring major events such as American Idol, NBA and even more London Olympics Games, not e ven they get a good advertising from those events but moreover they are even making profit, and what is better than getting advertising for free. McDonalds Happy Meal Advertising – they advertise diffrent times of the day, they also put toys in happy meal that is related to popular movies. â€Å"Happy meal† comes in the box hat has games and colorful images and even more they even have a website that is represented in â€Å"happy meal† and animation around it. Coorparate image – McDonalds had bad coorparate images until they started to recycle bags and they also added healthy menu, happy meals over time is increasing its demand as kids likes to get a toy with their meal and also its a good choice of meal. Direct Marketing – McDonalds uses direct marketing through the parents to the children to sell happy meal, also they sell it via drive-through by offering â€Å"Happy Meal†.Personal selling – McDonalds uses personal selling and staff which are appointed for personal selling they are the one who perform the activities regarding selling up of goods to customers and almost every time if you order something one of the staff members will ask you do you want fries or drink with that and if someone comes with the kid they will offer happy meal for them. Sales promotion – McDonalds uses sales promotion through organizing various contests, programs, functions and promoting different choice of products in the happy meal.Also they uses their happy meal box to advertise latest movies and a lot of different events that children finds it attractive. Sponsorship – No one expected, but 2012 McDonald’s was the biggest sponsorship for London Olympics Games and from my view of point that was a very smart move, because they made a lot of profit out of it, because they was selling their fast-food during Olympics and moreover they had so much advertising that just increased their market share and even improved t heir corporate image.Publicly and public relationship –yes they have healthy opton adn they are part of the olympics Public relations – McDonald’s are improving their public relations over the years and their â€Å"Happy Meal† is favourite choice for the kids. To improve their public relations McDonald’s have created their â€Å"Facebook† and â€Å"Twitter† pages also they setup and YouTube channel to keep the customers updated with the latest products and promotions. Recommendations McDonaldsIn my opinion McDonalds should still try to improve their corporate image, because they had a lot of bad stories about their business that their food contains bad ingredients that are dangerous for your health so in order to do that they could decrease fat content and try to add more healthy options in their menu. Another good recommendation would be more choises in happy meal such as different burgers or drinks. All in all McDonalds is a strong brand and these recommendations would not affect them a lot, but still too maximise profit and customer satisfaction they must follow every single smart recommendation possible.Coca-Cola Coca-Cola had a lot of bad stories in past and a lot of them has to do with business ethics and not being environmentally friendly therefore they made their corporate image bad for a while, and some people still remember those things. In order to improve their corporate image Coca-Cola should try to be more energy efficient, recycle more of their products, make more events and charities, create new products and keep their products at competitive price. All in all coke is most popular soft drink in the world and it going to stay for a long time if they keep doing good job.

Online MBA Removes Obstacles, Part II Essays

Online MBA Removes Obstacles, Part II Essays Online MBA Removes Obstacles, Part II Essay Online MBA Removes Obstacles, Part II Essay In the last post I talked about my best laid plans to leave college with my undergraduate degree and immediately enter a graduate program to earn my MBA. I had just gotten married in June following graduation and my new husband would be entering the same graduate program with me. We both had part time jobs and lived in student housing. It was going to be busy but it would also be fun. Our plans, however, did not all come together the way we thought. We found out I was pregnant just two months after our wedding and following that some complications with the pregnancy required me to be on complete bed rest. I would not have the opportunity to go to class or even continue working. I was completely restricted to my bed and I was enormously anxious about how I would fare in this capacity. I wanted my baby to be healthy but I was worried that I would fall apart in the meantime. A suggestion from a professor, however, led me in the right direction. He suggested an online MBA program that would allow me to work completely from home – from my bed – so that I could continue on with my studies and hopefully take my mind off of my situation. I enrolled immediately in an online MBA program and it was perfect for me. I would sleep when I wanted to sleep and when I was awake I could do some of my work right from my bed. It was far from the frenzied program that I would be enrolled in traditionally and it suited my purposes completely. As it turns out there are many online degree programs available from an online IT degree to a Masters in Education. It’s all about finding what works for you at the time and going for it!

Authors Here are 10 Must-Read Marketing Books

Authors Here are 10 Must-Read Marketing Books The 10 Best Marketing Books for Authors Most authors have enough saved blog posts on how to market a book to fill an anthology. But the benefit of a marketing book is that it covers one person's philosophy or approach from start to finish, so you can get a better look at the whole picture. Blog surfing can result in a lot of conflicting half-thoughts. So if you’re looking to brush up on your marketing savvy but still want the pleasure of flicking through chapters of seamless narrative, we suggest taking a look at the following ten best marketing books for authors - all hand-picked by the industry experts on our marketplace! Check out the 10 best marketing books for authors as suggested by industry professionals! 1. Online Marketing for Busy Authors: A Step-By-Step Guide - Fauzia BurkeYou may be a great author. But are you a great copywriter? The two skills require separate muscles, but both are important to get right if you want your work to end up on people’s reading lists’. This book goes over how to structure compelling copy for the various types of media you might be advertising on, covers common copywriting mistakes, and provides templates you can apply to your own product. You’ll be ready to join the ranks of Don Draper in no time.TLDR: Born-writer but not born-marketer? Learn how to write all over again - this time copy that will allow you to increase your sales on Amazon and to get more out of an adverts you run. "It doesn’t make you any less of an artist to know the ins and outs of marketing." #Marketingadvice this way! 10.  Make Art Make Money: Lessons from Jim Henson on Fueling Your Creative Career - Elizabeth Hyde StevensThis one is not technically about marketing, but after a steady diet of books on â€Å"targeting† and â€Å"strategizing,† we wanted to end this list on an inspirational note. As the title suggests, this book follows the life of Jim Henson (the man who brought us The Muppets) and is about being an artist while also making money. Its two most important lessons focus on:the importance of creators remaining at least partly in control of their enterprises (a shout-out to self-publishing authors if we’ve ever heard one!), andbalance: don’t let money make you lose sight of your passion, but don’t neglect your business savvy. It doesn’t make you any less of an artist to know the ins and outs of marketing, it ensures you can continue to create by allowing you to reach audiences/customers.TLDR: Don’t read this book for actionable marketin g tips - read it to remind yourself that your work’s success is worth fighting for.Have you read one of these books?  Do you have any favorites we didn't mention? Drop them in the comments below and we'll add them to the list!

Women's Studies. Barbie Doll as the Model for Little Girls Essay

Women's Studies. Barbie Doll as the Model for Little Girls - Essay Example Though the patterns of dolls cannot be adopted completely by the girls, yet an overwhelming majority of them observes the same in one way or the other. Hence, the movements launched by the Barbie dolls designers and developers go a long way in respect of introducing and modifying the physique and appearance fashion trends within the social establishment, predominantly for the women folk, which maintain higher level of inclinations regarding adopting and following the fashion patterns in the light of the material objects being introduced by the fashion designers. Introduction: It has pertinently been viewed that Nature has created men and women in two entirely different patterns, where the difference between the members of both the genders is not confined to physical appearance only; rather, the people of the two genders also appear to be divergent ones in thoughts, views and exposure with regards to life and society (Crenshaw 54). It is due to these differences that their liking and disliking, as well as tastes and flavors also witness dissimilarities since the early childhood of the individuals belonging to the two opposite genders. It is therefore it is aptly argued that the girls are more idealistic and less practical in comparison to their male counterparts, and develop role models for them to imitate the same up to they seek the perfection point (Crenshaw 19). It is particularly the case while girls’ adopting the prevailing fashion-styles and manners in order to look attractive, fascinating and dandy eventually. The same can also be witnessed by witnessing the love and passion of the girls for their Barbie dolls. The researchers demonstrate the very fact that girls generally keep Barbie dolls of various kinds with them by taking them to be an ideal play-mate as well as a beautiful object to imitate their features and characteristics; it is therefore, they look for reducing their weight to such a great extent so that they could grow as thin as they o bserve their dolls having the smartness and slenderness with regards to their physiques at large (Dittmar et al. 283). It is perhaps in the nature of the girls that they care the dolls in such a manner as their mothers take care of the children (Schwarz 296); it not only reflects their innate motherly sentiments and desire to play the role attributed to mothers, but also demonstrates their hidden longings for mating and having a companion that exclusively belongs to themselves only. Hence, some invisible and unconscious sexual desires also urge the girls to keep a smart and captivating mate in the form of Barbie doll with them (Kuther & McDonald 42). In addition, sense of security and escape from loneliness and being unprotected also force the girls for keeping the dolls with them. The girls’ imitating the Barbie actually reflects their passion for espousing the cultural traits that have been in vogue in their social and physical environment (Kuther & McDonald 40). One of the most imperative reasons behind establishing the Barbie to be a model for smartness and beauty includes the (mis)conception by viewing it to be the symbol of perfect attractiveness the smart and good-looking girls must contain. Consequently, the girls attempt to keep the physique of the dolls in view in order to maintain their smartness and remain under-weight in order to capture the attention of the public in general, and their lovers in particular. Somehow, the medical specialists and healthcare

Dry needling of a verrucae pedis and effectiveness of this Essay

Dry needling of a verrucae pedis and effectiveness of this intervention - Essay Example etc., or total removal of the lesion/s by surgery (electrocautery, cryosurgery, complete surgical excision or treatment with lasers) (Patel, 2005, Merck). Persistence and recurrence has always been a nagging problem with Verrucae pedis. HPV virus has more than a 100 strains and is a difficult infection to control despite availability of vaccines incorporating the most prevalent strains. It has been noticed in a study that HPV 7 was the predominant genotype responsible for verrucae in male patients, particularly in the toe web areas (Sun et al, 2010). Verrucae usually result after infection by the HPV virus through skin abrasions, particularly in immunocompromised individuals. They are primarily localized in the epidermal layer of the skin making them resistant to the action of host cellular immune responses (Merck). ‘They are sharply demarcated, rough, round or irregular, firm, and light gray, yellow, brown, or gray-black nodules 2 to 10 mm in diameter’ (Merck). Verrucae can be distinguished from corns and calluses from their tendency to be flattened by pressure and evidence of cornified epithelium surrounding the lesion. They are usually tender making standing as well as walking difficult for the sufferer. They have a tendency for pinpoint bleeding when the surface is pared away (Merck). Although some Verrucae may disappear spontaneously, others require specific treatment. It is important to establish and confirm the diagnosis prior to initiating any treatment as numerous viral and fungal lesions affect the human skin (Trent et al, 2001). These include infections with Herpes simplex, herpes zoster, tinea, candida and numerous other organisms which might present similar lesions. A total cure rate of 87% has also been reported by intralesional treatment with either a single or double injection of bleomycin sulfate (Salk & Douglas, 2006). Needling is a technique which has gained popularity over the recent years. This particular intervention was described

Defamation and the First Amendment Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Defamation and the First Amendment - Term Paper Example However, what is to be said of the extents of free speech guaranteed Americans in the First Amendment To what point does the First Amendment guarantee that someone may speak freely about someone else, albeit in a negative light Here, it will be examined: what constitutes defamation; what constitutes free speech as guaranteed by the First Amendment; and what happens in defamation cases. In other words, defamation of a person can range from someone making a comment or critique in presence of a third party, or can include written communications that a third party sees. (This does not include personal letters to one person that are not seen by a third party.)5 Anything defamatory is considered "that which tends to injure reputationdiminish[es] the esteem, respect, goodwill or confidence in which the plaintiff is held, orexcite[s] adverse, derogatory or unpleasant feelings or opinions against him."6 A communication is considered defamatory "if it tends to harm the reputation of another as to lower him in the estimation of the community or to deter third persons from associating or dealing with him."7 In this instance, the "meaning of a communication is that which the recipient correctly, or mistakenly but reasonably, understands that it was intended to express."8 First Amendment guarantees the freedom of speech, along with the freedom of religion, the press, and peaceful assembly. Specifically, the First Amendment reads as follows: "Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances."9 Madison's original draft of the First Amendment read, 'The people shall not be deprived or abridged of their right to speak, to write, or to publish their sentiments; and the freedom of the press, as one of the great bulwarks of liberty, shall be inviolable.''10 If it had been approved, this would have probably been a much more liberal version of the amendment than we have now. To speak, write, and publish one's sentiments without being deprived or abrid

Spartiate King Essay Example for Free

Spartiate King Essay Demaratus, a Spartiate King, was deposed by the Ephors after questions about his heritage had been raised; since the Kingship was hereditary and also primogenitive meaning that the position of King was passed on to the oldest son and not the most talented or popular. One of the Ephors acted as the Eponymous Ephor, from the 5th Century BC onwards, meaning that this particular Ephors name was used as a dating system for Sparta; which made it quite reliable due to the fact that each Eponymous Ephor was only elected once in their entire lifetime. In addition to this, the Ephors were able to discipline and fine any citizens for breaches in the laws of Sparta on the spot which differs greatly to the power displayed by other aspects of the Spartiate Constitution such as the Gerousia or the Kings. However, one problem with this aspect of the power of the position of Ephor, was the fact that an individual only held the position of power for a year, after which they would return to normal citizenship; thus putting them on par with those whom theyd previous fined and disciplined. As a result of this eventuality, its doubtful that the Ephors used their position as effectively as they could have since they knew of a backlash which would occur once they stepped down from the position. Also, the Ephors received foreign ambassadors from other Greek Poleis instead of the Kings or the Gerousia thus suggesting that they were the portion of the Constitution that interacted with other Poleis instead of the Kings; a role which would place them higher than the Kings since itd be their behaviour and interactions which the ambassadors would base their decisions upon and not that of the Kings. Traditionally, in societies wherein a Monarchy exists, it the reigning Monarch who interacts with ambassadors from other nations and countries however, since Spartas Constitution doesnt permit the Monarch the level of power it once had, its only reasonable to assume that such a role would fall to others. The Gerousia, comprising of the 28 elders all of whom were over sixty and retired from military service and the two Kings, was the Supreme Court of Sparta; they had the final say over any legal decisions proposed, based on whether or not the Assembly agreed with the proposed decision. The members of the Gerousia were elected to a life-long position, though naturally they were only eligible for election if they were over sixty; which incidentally was the age that all adult, male Spartiates retired from the military at. Once elected, each individual, was unable to be unelected and the only way they could be replaced was through their death. Unlike the Ephors therefore, the members of the Gerousia had the power of their positions to assist them in building referent power with the citizens of Sparta and other members of the Gerousia; thus their appointment to the Gerousia enabled additional types of power to develop and assist them with their agendas. However, for all the power the Gerousia had in relation to legal decision, they couldnt progress very far without the compliance of the Assembly; which would vote yes or no on a proposal from the Gerousia. If the Assembly didnt agree with the Gerousia about a proposed decision then the Gerousia had to revise the proposition and then offer it to the Assembly again. This would mean that the decisions of the Gerousia took a long time to carry out since; first of all, the Gerousia had to decide amongst themselves which proposal was best, then propose it to the Assembly and, if the Assembly didnt agree, theyd have to go back and revise it again thus meaning that to implement a simple change or improvement to a pre-existing law of Sparta could take weeks or even months at a time. This then wasnt efficient and quite cumbersome of the Constitution. The Assembly itself, as aforementioned, had the power to block any laws proposed by the Gerousia but, they couldnt speak out against the proposals; instead only being able to say yes or no to the proposal and not offer an improvement or possible change to it. In addition to this power to veto any proposal from the Gerousia, the Assembly had the Positional Power which enabled them to decide on whether or not Sparta would engage on a military campaign since, afterall, the members of the Assembly were actually soldiers who served in the army and thus would be the ones engaging in battle. Also, as an additional bonus to this, the Assembly had the power to chose which of the two Kings would lead them on the military campaign. Now, this type of decision was based on a number of things; most likely on the militaristic competence of the chosen King but, quite possibly, also the charisma of the King. As it was, the chosen King would, in effect, become the General of the Army and also the strategist for the campaign making his decisions final; though an Ephor would accompany the King on campaign to make sure he maintained the Code of Sparta whilst on campaign. In conclusion to this, I would surmise that it was the Position of Ephor which garnered the most power since the Ephors had the ability and means to control the Kings; insofar as having the power to summon, depose and even censure the King. In addition to this immense power over the Kings, the Ephors also had the power of their position to discipline and fine Spartiate citizens in much the same way a member of law enforcement does today. This then creates a diverse and dynamic position of power which enabled the Ephors to control the Kings themselves but also everyday individuals in order to maintain the Code of Sparta. Unlike the Gerousia which depended on the Assemblys agreement on proposals, and the Kings who depended on the Assembly on which King would undertake a military campaign, the Ephors were required to answer to no-one except the laws of Sparta itself.

Religious Identity In Different Cultures Sociology Essay

Religious Identity In Different Cultures Sociology Essay We argue that it is possible to empirically test some of the postulates of the classical distinction between an intrinsic and an extrinsic religious orientation: we investigated how people perceive the difference between an individual and a social religious identity, between a central versus a peripheral religiosity, and which are the different motives effectively underlying these different forms of religious identity. Using an ecological measure based on four types of participants self-categorization, results from a longitudinal study across six countries provided a new framework for interpreting religious identity. In particular, religious identity was mainly categorized at a social level by European respondents, whereas nonwestern respondents mostly rated it at an individual level; religious identity was perceived as equally central at the individual and social levels of categorization. Last, we compared the strength of different identity motives underlying these different forms o f religious identity. In the conclusions, we discuss the importance of investigating the different ways of being religious, and how they differ according to the specific experience of religiosity in a particular national context. Keywords: religious identity; identity motives; religious orientation; cross-cultural. The Categorization of Religious Identity in Different Cultures Is there a single form of the religious sentiment? This question was the first interrogation of Allports seminal book The individual and his Religion (1950, p.3): it is clear even in everyday life experience that individuals differ radically from one another in their ways of being religious and that each person endorses the religious identity with a different accent. Some years later, Allport and Ross (1967) developed the well-known distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic religious orientations. In this framework, the intrinsic orientation is typical of an individual who lives religiosity as something personal, mainly consisting of private expression, central in life and satisfying the individual need for meaning; on the other hand, the extrinsic oriented individual mainly lives the social aspect of religiosity, considering religion as something peripheral in his/her existence and that responds to social needs, such as the need for belonging or for high social status. Even if it has been widely used, many scholars pointed out the weakness if this definition and the debate on how to define religious identity is still open. Here, we focus on two parts, which we investigated in a cross-cultural study of late adolescents. The first aspect concerns the level of categorization of religious identity: in the intrinsic orientation, religiosity is personal and endorsed at an individual level, whereas the extrinsic type is mainly associated with a social level and thus with group belonging. Does this distinction correspond to real life experience of religious identity? Is it possible to distinguish between an individual (or personal) versus a social (group belonging) religious identity? The second aspect deals with the structure of identity: for an intrinsic orientated individual, religious identity is central and of primary importance, while it is peripheral and superficially endorsed in the extrinsic one. Does the distinction between individual and social religious identity entail a difference between a central versus a peripheral religious identity? In sum, this empirical study investigated in an ecologic framework if some people perceive their own religious identity as an individual characteristic, whereas others as a group belonging, and the implications of this difference for the understanding of religious identity. The Level of Categorization of Religious Identity: Individual and Social Religious Self According to the delineation of the religious orientations provided by Allport and Ross (1967), some people live religiosity as something personally chosen and individually endorsed, whereas other people live religiosity mainly as a belonging to a social group. In the literature, research into religiosity sometimes consider the individual aspect of religion, for example solitary personal prayer (e.g. Fincham, Lambert, Beach, 2010), while at other times consider the social side of religiosity, for example the feeling of belonging to a group and the commitment toward this group (e.g. Vekuyten Yildiz, 2010). Cohen, Hall, Koenig, and Meador (2005) argued that the importance of social aspects in religion can be viewed as a cultural characterization of certain religious denominations (see also Cohen, Siegel, Rozin, 2003; Hall, Meador, Koenig, 2008); for example, the emphasis on communitarian aspects (praying together, feeling a sense of belonging) is stronger in certain denominations, whereas in other denominations the emphasis is more on individual religiosity (e.g. beliefs, conversion, personal prayer). Another possible explanation for the different emphasis put on the individual versus social side of religiosity can be found in general culture: the differences between individualistic and collectivistic cultures might also affect differences in religious identity (Triandis, 1995). The six countries included in the present study all have a Christian historical background (paired with Islam in Lebanon), but they differ in levels of individualism and collectivism (Triandis, 1995). Thus, we explored the question about the individual or social characterization of religious identity in a large sample of different cultures, allowing to compare between individualistic and collectivistic countries. To our knowledge, no study to date has investigated with an ecologic approach what people actually feel about their religious identity. A first purpose in the present study is to look at what people say when they think about their religious identity. In particular, we proposed to look at four possible levels of categorization, drawing on self- categorization theory (Turner, Hogg, Oakes, Reicher, Wetherell, 1987): an individual level, a relational level, a small group level and a large group level. We expected that some people perceive their own religious identity mainly as a personal characteristic, whereas others perceive it as a group belonging, etc. Therefore, we examined which level of categorization people associate their religious identity with if directly asked, without any sort of priming (e.g. without influence by instructions or by item formulation). The Structure of Identity: Central and Peripheral Religious Self The question about the centrality of religiosity in the individual self is assuming growing importance in the literature. In fact, it is argued that the individual differences in centrality of the religious self may also result in different degrees of integration of religion in life, and thus to different outcomes (Pargament, 2002). According to Allport and Ross (1967) theorization, intrinsic and extrinsic religiosity imply a different degree of centrality of religion in the individuals life: the intrinsic orientation entails centrality in life, i.e. subjective importance of religion, and it is seen as a more mature form of religiosity, whereas in the extrinsic form religiosity is a more peripheral part of life. Given that the authors consider intrinsic form of religiosity mainly as individual religiosity, they also assume that the individual religious self is more central than the social (extrinsic) religious self, which is seen as more peripheral. Nevertheless, this clear-cut opposition is questioned from many parts (e.g. Pargament, 1992; Burris, 1994). Flere and Lavric (2007) argued that intrinsic religious orientation is a culturally specific American Protestant concept and concluded that it is time for scholars to approach the question of the authenticity [italics added] of non-intrinsic religious orientation, including social extrinsic orientation not just as sociability, but as a legitimate path for achieving grace and salvation (p. 529). Therefore, we argue that research into the perceived centrality of different types of religious selves would gain clarity by being investigated cross-culturally, comparing across cultures the perceived importance of religiosity in the individual, relational or social self. In the present study, we investigated the centrality measured as perceived subjective importance of religious self in identity in a cross-cultural sample from six nations, including both western and nonwestern countries. We examined if people who define their religious identity more in terms of individual versus relational versus social self also show different degrees of centrality of that religious identity. According to the evidence provided by Cohen and colleagues (2005), and Flere and Lavric (2007), the social aspects of religiosity can be perceived equally important as the individual aspects by the person herself; thus, we expected to observe equivalent degrees of centrality at all levels of categorization. The Present Study This study is based on secondary analysis of a data set of a broader longitudinal study into culture and identity (Becker, Vignoles, Owe, Brown, Smith, Easterbrook, et al., 2012). For the purpose of the present research, we examined six different cultural contexts: three European countries from different parts of Europe (UK, Belgium, Italy) and three non European countries, specifically a Middle East country (Lebanon), one in East Asia (Philippines) and one in sub-Saharan Africa (Ethiopia). These countries represent six very different cultural contexts in which religious identity can develop, with varying levels of individualism and collectivism (Triandis, 1995): the UK, Italy and Belgium have similar high rates for individualism, while Lebanon, Philippines and Ethiopia are all collectivistic countries (Hofstede, 2001). We hypothesized that in all these contexts people can perceive their religious identity at different levels of categorization, with implications for the centrality of religious identity and for the motives underlying each type of religious self. In the previous sections of this paper, we accounted for the distinction between individual and social religious self; then we exposed the centrality or non centrality of religious identity and the multiplicity of motives that can be at the basis of religious identity. The study reflects this pattern and provides answers to three research questions: (1) Are there individuals who categorize their religious identity as individual and others who categorize their identity as relational or social? Our hypothesis, following Cohen at al. (2005), was that participants define their religious identity both as individual and as social. (2) Is the individual religious self the most central religious identity? Our hypothesis, consistent with Cohen et al. (2005) and Flere and Lavric (2007) findings that both individual and social motives can have the same importance in religious identity, was that, irrespective of culture, the perceived centrality of religious identity is equivalent at the individ ual, relational and group level of identity. Method Participants. Participants were a subsample of the broader research project, constituted by secondary school students in the UK, Belgium, Italy, Lebanon, Philippines, and Ethiopia. A total of 1,793 participants took part in the study. The mean age was 17.5 (SD 1.1); 257 were residents in the UK, 194 in Belgium, 187 in Italy, 300 in Lebanon, 250 in Ethiopia, and 300 in the Philippines. Demographic information regarding age, gender, general religiosity (mean rates for How important is religion to you?, from 1 not at all to 5 extremely) and religious belonging in each national sample are presented in Table 1. Table 1. Participants Characteristics and Religious Belonging by Sample. Sample Belgium Ethiopia Italy Lebanon Philippines UK Mean Age (sd) 17.7(1.1) 18.1(1.0) 18.1(0.8) 17.3(0.5) 17.9(1.3) 17.1(0.8) % Female 57 45 61 46 66 75 Religiosity (1-5) 2.14 4.77 2.69 3.73 4.03 1.92 % Christian 45.4 97.1 77.8 34 89.3 34.1 % Muslim 6.0 1.2 1.6 61.3 0.7 0.8 % Other 1.2 3.8 2.0 8.7 2.4 % no relig. belonging 46.6 1.6 16.8 2.7 1.3 61 Procedure. The research was introduced as a study about opinions, thoughts and feelings; participants were recruited through schools and were not compensated in any way. As the present study is based on secondary analysis, the research team members who supervised the completion of the questionnaire were unaware of the researchs aim, so participants were not influenced about religion/religiosity. A questionnaire was filled out at the beginning of the school year (time 1) and, after a period of approximately six months, another questionnaire was completed (time 2). In nations where this was an ethical requirement, parental consent was obtained in advance. Measures. Measures were included within a larger questionnaire concerning identity construction and cultural orientation (see Becker et al, 2012; Owe et. al, 2012). The questionnaires were administered in English in UK and Philippines, and they were translated from English into French (Belgium), Italian (Italy), Arabic (Lebanon) and Amharic (Ethiopia) in each country. Independent back-translations were made by bilinguals who were not familiar with the research topic and hypotheses. Ambiguities and inconsistencies were identified and resolved by discussion, adjusting the translations. Only the measures relevant to this article are described here. Generation of identity aspects. First, participants were asked to generate freely ten answers to the question Who are you? (hereafter, these answers will be referred to as identity aspects), using an adapted version of the Twenty Statements Test (TST, Kuhn McPartland, 1954, see Becker et al., 2012). This part of the questionnaire was located at the very beginning of the questionnaire, so that responses would be constrained as little as possible by theoretical expectations or demand characteristics. The ten aspects generated by respondents at time 1 were re-presented at time 2 and participants re-evaluated them after the time lag. Self-categorization of identity aspects. (Vignoles et al., 2006). Participants were asked to indicate for each identity aspect the category that best fitted their identity aspect, by circling a letter (possible choices: I, for individual characteristic, R, for relationship with someone, SM, for belonging to a small group, LG, for belonging to a large group). We adopted four categories in order to maximize the ecological approach and let respondents choose between more than a dichotomous alternative. Identity centrality. (Vignoles et al. 2006). A question measured the perceived centrality of each identity aspect within participants subjective identity structures (How important is each of these things in defining who you are?; scale anchors were 0 = not at all important, 10 = extremely important). The same item was answered both at time 1 and at time 2. Identity motives. (Vignoles et al., 2006). Participants were asked to rate each of their identity aspects on the six identity motives. The questions measured the association of each identity aspect with feelings of self-esteem (How much does each of these things make you see yourself positively?), distinctiveness (How much do you feel that each of these things distinguishes you-in any sense-from other people?), belonging (How much does each of these things make you feel you belong-that you are include among or accepted by people who matter for you?), efficacy (How much does each of these things make you feel competent and capable?), continuity (How much does each of these things give you a sense of continuity-between past, present and future-in your life?), meaning (How much does each of these things give you the sense that your life is meaningful?). Scale anchors were 0 = not at all, 10 = extremely. Results After collecting data, we read all the identity aspects and selected the identity aspects referring to religion, coding them as 1 and all other aspects as 0. All the aspects that mentioned God, Religion, belonging to religious organizations, etc. were coded as religious identity aspects. Examples are: Christian, Religious, God fearing, Member of the Church, etc. The percentage of people who mentioned at least one religious identity aspect in each country were: Ethiopia 47%, Philippines 33%, Italy 13%, Belgium 9%, Lebanon 7%, UK 6%. Most of the following analyses, except where indicated, were conducted selecting only participants religious identity aspects. Self-categorization of religious identity aspects. The questionnaire item, as described before, allowed to choose between individual characteristic, relationship with someone, belonging to a small group and belonging to a large group. The percentages of selected categories differed in each country sample. As we can see in Figure 1, European participants mainly categorized their religious identity aspects as group belonging, while non-European participants labeled their religious identity aspects as individual characteristic in the majority of cases; relationship with someone and small group were chosen by a minority of respondents. A Chi-square test indicated significant differences between countries, à Ã¢â‚¬ ¡2 (15, 232) = 47.981, p We then checked if the differences in categorization were connected to general culture. We tested if it was a general tendency of western respondents to define all their identity aspects as group belongings, but we found that this categorization is specific to religious identity aspects: a Chi-square test conducted on all identity aspects of the European samples indicated a significant difference of categorization between religious and non religious identity aspects, à Ã¢â‚¬ ¡2 (3, 1) = 33.645, p Figure1. Figure 1. Percentages of self-categorization of religious identity aspects in each sample. Centrality of religious identity in the different levels of categorization. We tested the hypothesis that religious identity aspects would be perceived as more central (i.e. rated as more important) in an individual religious self (aspects labeled as individual characteristic) than in a relational (aspects labeled as relation with someone) or social religious self (aspects labeled as small group belonging or large group belonging). However, the ANOVA comparing the means of the four groups revealed no significant differences in the centrality of the religious identity aspects (F (3,202) = 1.61, p = .189). Mean centrality for each level of categorization is reported in Figure 2. Thus, all levels of categorization of religious identity are associated to the same degree of importance for the person who endorses one of them. Figure 2. Mean identity centrality of the religious self by level of categorization. Numbers in parentheses report standard deviations. Centrality was significantly different between countries (F (5,202) = 6.40, p Discussion Our aim was to explore different forms of religious identity in different countries. The study measured the occurrence of religious identity with an ecological procedure, where participants freely generated aspects of their identities. In countries with a higher mean religiosity, a higher number of participants listed a religious identity aspect in their identity. We first investigated the level of self-categorization (Turner et al., 1987) that participants choose for the religious aspects of their identity. Interesting between-country differences were observed: most Western participants rated their religious identity as group belonging, whereas nonwestern participants rated it as individual characteristic. This pattern does not match the traditional individualist-collectivist distinction (Triandis, 1995), and it cannot be explained by general culture (as tested by the comparison with other, non-religious, identity aspects of the same participants), but probably reflects something mo re specifically connected with religious traditions and habits. These results are in line with Cohen et al. (2005) and add to the existing theory the specification that the importance of social versus individual aspects of religious identity varies not only by religious denomination but also by the specific experience of religiosity in a specific national context. It could be, for example, that in Western countries, where religion is not so widespread, people who experience religiosity necessarily have this experience by means of affiliation with a particular group. On the contrary, in countries in which religion is more widespread, individuals can live a religious experience individually and without entering a specific group. The second aim of our study was to compare religious identity centrality at different levels of categorization: literature about intrinsic and extrinsic religious orientation suggests that a more personal level of categorization would coincide with a more central (i.e. perceived as important) religious identity (Allport Ross, 1967). However, we predicted, following Cohen et al. (2005) and Flere and Lavric (2007) that the perceived importance of religious identity should be the same for individual, relational, and social religious identity. In support of this hypothesis, there were no significant differences in the mean rates of identity centrality at the four levels of self-categorization. Thus, this disconfirms the distinction between an extrinsic religiosity that is peripheral and based on group belonging, and an intrinsic religiosity that is central and pertains to an individual level. In fact, both individual level and group level religious identity have the characteristic of ce ntrality that was a prerogative of the sole intrinsic orientation. Conclusions and Implications A first implication of these findings is the irrelevance of a distinction between a first class (real, authentic, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦) and a second class (peripheral, instrumental,à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦) religious identity reflecting the personal-social distinction. In fact, even if it is possible to differentiate between different levels of religious identity and to distinguish between a more personal religious identity associated with sense of meaning and a more social religious identity associated with need for belonging (as can be predicted by the traditional intrinsic-extrinsic distinction), each type of religious identity is central for the individual who lives it. Thus, we agree with Flere and Lavric (2007) that the authentic religious expression cannot be confined into the intrinsic-individual orientation but should also include the importance, for the individual, of social and relational aspects of religious identity. A limitation of this study lays in the theoretical opposition between individual and social self: even if it was a necessary option for a first disentanglement of the different ways of being religious, we think that the two selves are not alternative and that an individual could have both a salient individual religious self and a salient social religious self. Indeed, some recent studies combining the two levels measuring at the same time the individual and social side of religious identity show promising findings (see for example, Brambilla, Manzi, Regalia, 2011; Verkuyten Yildiz, 2010). What should also be further explored, is the impact of the minority or majority status of religious groups in a given country on the individual perception of religious identity. In fact, the unexpected observation, in our sample, of the prevalence of self-categorization of religious identity as a group level identity among the western participants, elicits new questions. The impact of different denominations has already been investigated (e.g. Toosi, Ambady, 2010), but less is known about the influence of religious history of each country: it could be the case that in more secularized countries the religious identity is connected to belonging to a specific group, whereas in more religious nations individuals can practice their religion as something ordinary, pertaining to the majority of people (see also Gebauer et al, 2012; Sedikides Gebauer, 2010). Another aspect of possible influence is the interconnection between peoples religious identity and the way in which they enter in con tact with a religious tradition, for example their religious group/community and its specific practices (attendance of services, solitary prayer, volunteering for an association, etc.) and, before, the transmission of faith within family (see for example Assor, Cohen-Malayev, Kaplan, Friedman, 2005).